The third topic The subject of philosophy

The traditional concept of the subject of philosophy includes three points, or theories: existence, knowledge, and values.

Ontology:

Wolf was the first to introduce it as a philosophical term derived from the Greek word nO, which is what the ancients called metaphysics, i.e. the term existence is synonymous with the term used later, which is metaphysics.

While this topic is concerned with examining the nature of existence in general, the partial sciences, on the contrary, examine existence from some of its aspects. For example, the natural sciences examine existence as a changing body, and the mathematical sciences examine existence as a quantity or amount. That is, these sciences focus on the phenomena of existence, while the topic of existence is concerned with the general characteristics of existence, meaning that it examines the existent in itself, independent of its conditions and phenomena.

Many schools of thought have emerged that have attempted to answer questions that have preoccupied man since time immemorial, such as cosmic events and whether they occur on the basis of a fixed law or happen by chance, and whether these events appear on their own or are issued by necessary causes that proceed according to the laws of matter and motion, and whether these events have goals or happen spontaneously without intention, and thus whether there is a God behind the world of changing phenomena, and in the attributes of God “S” and his relationship with his creatures, and whether existence is purely material or purely spiritual or a mixture of both?

Epistemology:

Ferrier is considered the first to use this term, which is derived from the Greek word “episteme,” meaning the possibility of knowing something or the inability to know it. For example, is it possible for a person to perceive facts and be confident in the veracity of their perception and the accuracy of their information, or is their ability insufficient to know things?

If human knowledge is possible, what are its limits? Is human knowledge merely probabilistic, or is it capable of transcending the level of probability to the level of certainty? What are the sources and tools of this knowledge? Is it reason, sense, or intuition? What are

What is the nature and reality of this knowledge? And what is the relationship between perceived objects and the powers that perceive them?

It is noteworthy that historians call the two subjects of existence and knowledge “metaphysics,” meaning ” beyond nature.” While philosophy among the ancients originally focused on the study of existence, among moderns it examines existence through the theory of knowledge, as we will explain later.

Axiology:

Paul Labbe was the first to use this term, which is derived from the Greek word axios. The philosophy of values ​​examines the ideals, or absolute values, which are: truth, goodness, and beauty.

In and of themselves, not as means to achieve ends. Are these values ​​merely meanings in the mind used to evaluate things? Or do they have an existence independent of the mind that perceives them? Logic, ethics, and aesthetics examine these values ​​in their traditional sense: that is, as normative sciences that investigate what ought to be, not as positive sciences whose study is limited to what is.

Logic deals with the rules that protect the mind from error, i.e., it examines what sound thinking should be like. Ethics establishes the ideals that humans should adhere to, i.e., it examines what human behavior should be like. Aesthetics establishes the standards by which beautiful things are measured, i.e., it examines what beautiful things ought to be like. These three normative sciences comprise what is known as axiology, or the philosophy of values.

These three topics: existence, knowledge, and values ​​in their various branches, constitute the main subject of philosophy in its traditional sense, even though contemporary philosophies reject this concept, as will be mentioned.

In fact, research and thought methods in ancient times, as well as in the Middle Ages, were influenced by the circumstances that shaped the concept of philosophy in its origins, definition, and subject matter, particularly in terms of its general nature and the prevalence of abstract theoretical research into the reality and essence of beings. Aristotle, for example, one of the pinnacles of that cultural era, studied metaphysics and the natural sciences alike in a rationalistic manner.

Aristotle’s primary concern was to search for general, essential qualities that resemble mathematical meanings in their stability. These meanings, although not separate from things, are the only ones that are suitable for science. If it is possible to arrive at the universal meaning that distinguishes a species, all other particular meanings can be derived from it in a logical, standardized manner.

Thus, Aristotle’s writings retained an idealistic rational character, which made subsequent generations believe that he had established the final theories in philosophy and logic. Formal logic, which he arrived at as a result of the efforts of his predecessors, especially Socrates and Plato, continued to dominate the research methods of medieval thinkers, who also looked to Aristotle as the complete philosopher who presented science in a purely rational manner.

Greek philosophers, as well as medieval philosophers, relied on formal logic, which was consistent with the level of scientific development of those times. Greek philosophers, especially Aristotle, laid the foundations of the formal method, which consisted of a number of general rules that the thinker must observe under all circumstances in his search for truth, in order to avoid error. These rules are what came to be called logic. A final note is that these general rules, or method, were appropriate for the early stages of human development and the dawn of science. Although not inherently false, they lead to error when applied to other, more advanced stages.

 The Concept of Philosophy in the Middle Ages:

The first section: its concept among Western Christian philosophers and Arab Muslim philosophers

1- The concept of philosophy among Western Christian philosophers:

The ancient Greek concept of philosophy as a desire to seek truth for its own sake persisted among some medieval thinkers, who distinguished between the science attained by reason through contemplation and the knowledge bestowed by divine revelation. The defining characteristic of philosophy at that time became the attempt to reconcile reason with the new religion,1 and to prove that the truths revealed by God are merely an expression of reason.

The relationship between the state and the church influenced the concept of philosophy during this period. One of the most important prevalent theories was that formulated by Pope Gelasius I in the late fifth century, known as the theory of the two swords or two powers. It remained popular throughout the Middle Ages, especially during the early years.

The essence of this theory is to say that there is a duality in the organization of the human community, as the affairs of the soul and eternal salvation are the responsibility of the church and are carried out by priests, while the civil government, through its employees, manages worldly affairs such as the governorate.

On peace, order, and justice. The theory assumed a cooperative relationship between the two powers, although it was shrouded in some ambiguity about the boundaries of each.

The Two Swords Theory expressed the teachings of the Church Fathers, which spanned approximately five centuries of the Middle Ages. The essence of these teachings, as we have explained, revolved around the distinction between spiritual and worldly matters—that is, between the needs of the soul and the body.

According to this theory, divine will decreed that human society be subject to two authorities, spiritual and temporal, one governed by clergy and the other by secularists. The administration of each was subject to both divine and natural law. However, initially, there was no complete separation between church and state in the modern sense of the term. Rather, there was a single Christian society, as indicated by Saint Augustine in his book, The City of God. Thus, when conflict arose between the two authorities, it was characterized in its early stages as a dispute between two groups of officials, each with original authority claiming to operate within its own boundaries. The conflict encompassed multiple areas of jurisdiction, such as the king’s oath of office, the installation and occasional removal of rulers, and the extent of the temporal rulers’ authority to appoint bishops and other senior clergy, as well as to prosecute them for failing to fulfill their spiritual duties.

The writings of Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) , a Dominican monk, occupy an important center in this conflict, given his support for the papacy and his exploration of the relationship between philosophy and Christianity.

The Catholic Church initially tended to ban Aristotle’s works on the grounds that they were heretical. These works found their way into Europe via Arabic sources and Jewish translators from Andalusia. The Church actually forbade the reading of these works at the University of Paris in 1210, but then gradually reversed this and began

Aristotle’s views were used to defend Christianity, until they became a cornerstone of Roman Catholic philosophy.

This shift is due to Thomas Aquinas and other philosopher-monks who built bridges between Aristotle’s philosophy and Christianity. Thomas argued that all human knowledge is a unity, and that each science is concerned with a specific subject. However, above all else, philosophy stands, which he considered a rational system that seeks to establish general principles derived from all the sciences.

Christian theology, on the other hand, transcends reason and relies on divine revelation, thus occupying the pinnacle of this system. However, although revelation transcends reason, it in no way conflicts with it. Theology complements the system, which places science and reason at its foundation. Faith also complements reason, and both are the source of knowledge and learning, and they cannot contradict each other.

In the midst of this conflict between the two powers and the preoccupation of thinkers with the extent of each’s right to dominate the other, political thought lagged behind and its development was delayed due to its lack of a scientific method as a result of the flourishing of theology and metaphysics. This was a phase that would continue until the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the advancement of science, the dawn of the Renaissance and then the modern era.